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Health effects of particulate matter

World Health Organisation (WHO) (2013) C_WHO

This paper summarizes the evidence about the health effects of air pollution from particulate matter and their implications for policy-makers, with the aim of stimulating the development of more effective strategies to reduce air pollution and its health effects in the countries of eastern Europe,... more

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Africa’s Health Financing in a New Era

Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa CDC) (2025) CC

Africa’s health sector is facing an unprecedented financing crisis, driven by a sharp decline of 70% in Official Development Assistance (ODA) from 2021 to 2025 and deep-rooted structural vulnerabilities. This collapse is placing immense pressure on Africa’s already fragile health systems as ODA ...is seen as the backbone of critical health programs: pandemic preparedness, maternal and child health services, disease control programs are all at risk, threatening Sustainable Development Goal 3 and Universal Health Coverage. Compounding this is Africa’s spiraling debt, with countries expected to service USD 81 billion by 2025—surpassing anticipated external financing inflows—further eroding fiscal space for health investments. Level of domestic resources is low. TThe Abuja Declaration of 2001, a pivotal commitment made by African Union (AU) member states, aimed to reverse this trend by pledging to allocate at least 15% of national budgets to the health sector. However, more than two decades later, only three countries—Rwanda, Botswana, and Cabo Verde—have consistently met or exceeded this target (WHO, 2023). In contrast, over 30 AU member states remain well below the 10% benchmark, with some allocating as little as 5–7% of their national budgets to health. In addition, only 16 (29%) of African countries currently have updated versions of National Health Development Plan (NHDP) supported by a National Health Financing Plan (NHFP). These two documents play a critical role in driving internal resource mobilisation. At the same time, public health emergencies are surging, rising 41%—from 152 in 2022 to 213 in 2024—exposing severe under-resourcing of health infrastructure and workforce. Recurring outbreaks (Mpox, Ebola, cholera, measles, Marburg…) alongside effects of climate change and humanitarian crises in Eastern DRC, the Sahel, and Sudan, are overwhelming systems stretched by chronic underfunding. The situation is worsened by Africa’s heavy dependency with over 90% of vaccines, medicines, and diagnostics being externally sourced—leaving countries vulnerable to global supply chain shocks. Health worker shortages persist, with only 2.3 professionals per 1,000 people (below the WHO’s recommended 4.45), and fewer than 30% of systems are digitized, undermining disease surveillance and early warning. Without decisive action, Africa CDC projects the continent could reverse two decades of health progress, face 2 to 4 million additional preventable deaths annually, and a heightened risk of a pandemic emerging from within. Furthermore, 39 million more Africans could be pushed into poverty by 2030 due to intertwined health and economic shocks. This is not just a sectoral crisis—it is an existential threat to Africa’s political, social, and economic resilience, and global stability. In response, African leaders, under Africa CDC’s stewardship, are advancing a comprehensive three-pillar strategy centered on domestic resource mobilization, innovative financing, and blended finance. more

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Al Za'atari Refugee Camp Health Assessment

UNICEF; REACH (2014)

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Zambia. Demographic and Health Survey 2018

Central Statistical Office (CSO) [Zambia], Ministry of Health (MOH) [Zambia], and ICF (2020) C1

Final Report

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Summary of Guidance for Public Health Strategies to Address High Levels of Community Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and Related Deaths, December 2020

Honein MA, Christie A, Rose DA, et al. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC (2020) C_CDC

MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. ePub: 4 December 2020. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6949e2

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Male Circumcision and HIV in Lesotho: Is the Relationship Real or Spurious? Analysis of the 2009 Demographic and Health Survey

Makatjane, T. J., T. Hlabana, and E. M. Letete Rockville, Maryland, USA: ICF International (2016) C2

DHS Working Papers No. 125

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Sexual and Reproductive Health of Women and Adolescent Girls Living With HIV

EngenderHealt;; UNFPA (2008)

guidance for health managers, health workers, and activists

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Communicating with health workers about COVID-19 vaccination

World Health Organization WHO, Regional Office of Europe (2021) C_WHO

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2010-11 Senegal Demographic and Health and Multiple Indicators Survey: Key Findings

L’Agence Nationale de la Statistique and ICF International (2012) C1

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Gender in Nigeria: Data from the 2013 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS)

National Population Commission (NPCNigeria) and ICF International (2014) C1

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Who wants to work in a rural health post? The role of intrinsic motivation, rural background and faith-based institutions in Ethiopia and Rwanda

Serneels, P., Montalvo, J.G., Pettersson, G., et al. Bulletin of the World Health Organization (2010) C_WHO

This paper examines the extent to which health workers differ in their willingness to work in rural areas and the reasons for these differences, based on the data collected in Rwanda analysed individually and in combination with data from Ethiopia.

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South Africa Demographic and Health Survey 2016: Key Indicators

National Department of Health (NDoH), Statistics South Africa (Stats SA), South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC), and ICF (2017) C1

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Headache disorders and public ill-health in India: prevalence estimates in Karnataka State

G. B Kulkarni; G. N. Rao; G. Gururaj; et al. The Journal of Headache and Pain; BMC (2015) CC

Kulkarni et al. The Journal of Headache and Pain (2015) 16:67 DOI 10.1186/s10194-015-0549-x

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Prevalence of Schistosoma Haematobium Measured by a Mobile Health System in an Unexplored Endemic Region in the Subprefecture of Torrock, Chad

Layaye, D.; E de Bruijn, M.; de Jong, T.; JMIR Publication Advancing Digital Health and Open Science (2019) CC

Schistosoma haematobium is a parasitic digenetic trematode responsible for schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia). The disease is caused by penetration of the skin by the parasite, spread by intermediate host molluscs in stagnant waters, and can be treated by administration of praziquantel. Schis... more

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Namibia National WISN Report 2015: A Study of Workforce Estimates for Public Health Facilities in Nambia

Titus, M., Hendricks, R., Ndemueda, J., McQuide, et al Ministry of Health and Social Services, Republic of Namibia (2015) C2

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Water, sanitation, hygiene and health. A primer for health professionals

World Health Organization WHO (2019) C_WHO

This primer aims to guide health professionals on engaging with WASH-related issues. It gives an overview of WASH interventions and the status of WASH services globally and outlines key linkages with health. It provides examples of key actions that health actors can take to ensure WASH efforts effec... more

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Noncommunicable diseases and mental health in small island developing states

World Health Organisation (WHO) (2023) C_WHO

Small island developing states (SIDS) are a set of islands and coastal states that share similar sustainable development challenges, as a result of their size, geography and vulnerability to climate change. Thirty-nine WHO member states in four regions – the African Region, the Region of the Ameri... more

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COVID-19 health system response monitor, Thailand

World Health Organization. Regional Office for South-East Asia (2020) C_WHO

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Finding the Balance: Public health and social measures in Nigeria

Partnership for Evidence-Based Response to COVID-19 (PERC) (2021) CC

October 2021